desegregation busing

Examples of desegregation busing in the following topics:

• Coleman's Study of Between-School Effects in American Education

  • In 1966, the Coleman Report launched a debate about "school effects," desegregation and busing, and cultural bias in standardized tests.
  • Sociologist James Coleman found in later research in 1975 that desegregation busing programs had led to white flight from the higher-class mixed race school districts.
  • It also helped define debates over desegregation, busing, and cultural bias in standardized tests.
  • This latter finding was a catalyst for the implementation of desegregated busing systems, which bused black students from racially segregated neighborhoods to integrated schools.
  • Following up on this conclusion, Coleman found in later research in 1975, that desegregated busing programs had led to white flight from the higher-class, mixed-race school districts.

• Montgomery and Protests

  • We are, therefore, asking every Negro to stay off the buses Monday in protest of the arrest and trial.
  • Don't ride the buses to work, to town, to school, or anywhere on Monday.
  • Please stay off all buses Monday.
  • On Saturday, December 3, it was evident that the black community would support the boycott, and very few African Americans rode the buses that day.
  • The Montgomery Bus Boycott resounded far beyond the desegregation of public buses.

• Continuing Challenges in Race Relations in the U.S.

  • By 1971, however, tensions over desegregation surfaced in Northern cities, with angry protests over the busing of children to schools outside their neighborhood to achieve racial balance.
  • Nixon opposed busing personally but enforced court orders requiring its use.
  • In addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan in 1970—the first significant federal affirmative action program.

• Civil Rights Under Nixon

  • He supported integration in principle, but he was opposed the use of busing (using bus systems to transport African American students to previously all-white school districts and vice versa) to force integration.
  • The task force's plan made federal aid and official meetings with President Nixon available as rewards for school committees who complied with desegregation plans.
  • Many whites reacted angrily to busing and forced integration, sometimes protesting and rioting.
  • Nixon opposed busing personally but enforced court orders requiring its use.
  • In addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan in 1970—the first significant federal affirmative action program.

• Educational Reform in the U.S.

  • From the 1950s to the 1970s, many of the proposed and implemented reforms in U.S. education stemmed from the Civil Rights Movement and related trends; examples include ending racial segregation and busing for the purpose of desegregation, affirmative action, and banning of school prayer.
  • Educational reforms during the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s focused on civil rights, especially desegregation and affirmative action.

• Sit-Ins and Freedom Rides

  • According to the agreement, gradual desegregation of the lunch counters would be implemented.
  • Nashville thus became the first major city in the South to begin desegregating its public facilities.
  • The sit-ins inspired other forms of nonviolent protest intended to desegregate public spaces.
  • Led by CORE Director James Farmer, 13 riders (seven black, six white) left Washington, DC, on Greyhound and Trailways buses.
  • The danger increased as the riders continued through Georgia into Alabama, where one of the two buses was firebombed outside the town of Anniston.

• The Emergence of the Civil Rights Movement

  • Gayle, took effect, and led to a United States Supreme Court decision that declared the Alabama and Montgomery laws requiring segregated buses to be unconstitutional.
  • Critics had charged he was lukewarm, at best, on the goal of desegregation of public schools.

• Advantages of fuel cells

  • Currently, fuel cells are being developed to power cars (every major automotive manufacturer in the world now has a fuel cell vehicle in development), buses, boats, trains, planes, consumer electronics, portable power units and wastewater treatment plants (where the methane produced by the wastewater is used as a fuel source).

• Desegregation in Little Rock

  • The decision declared all laws establishing segregated schools to be unconstitutional, and it called for the desegregation of all schools throughout the nation.
  • Identify the importance of the Little Rock Nine in the process of school desegregation.

• Monitoring Competition

  • Levitt argued, for example, that the passenger train industry made the mistake of restricting their competition to other railroads, instead of all mass transit transportation alternatives, including automobiles, airlines, and buses .
  • Levitt argued that the passenger train industry erred in restricting their competition to other railroads instead of all mass transit transportation alternatives, including automobiles, airlines, and buses.