antimicrobial resistance

Examples of antimicrobial resistance in the following topics:

• Antimicrobial Proteins

  • Antimicrobial peptides are a unique and diverse group of molecules.
  • Bacteria can develop resistance to antimicrobial peptides (as well as separate resistances to antibiotics and other antimicriobials).
  • Bacteria like staphylococcus aureas, which forms the highly resistant MRSA strain, can reduce the negativity of the charge of its cell membrane by bringing amino acids from the cytoplasm into its cell membrane so antimicrobial peptides won't bind to it.
  • Other forms of antimicrobial resistance include producing enzymes that inhibit the antimicrobial peptides, altering the hydrophobic forces on the cell membrane, and capturing antimicrobial peptides in vesicles on the cell membrane to remove them from the bacterium.
  • Additionally, commensal bacteria have developed antimicrobial resistance to peptides , but they are normal flora of the body.

• Structure and Function of Antibodies

  • It is resistant to the proteolytic enzymes found in the gastrointestinal mucosae.
  • It has been shown to activate basophils and mast cells to produce antimicrobial factors.

• Skin and Mucosae (Surface Barriers)

  • While it performs a wide range of functions, including sensation, heat regulation, control of evaporation, storage, synthesis, absorption, and water resistance, but its innate immune system functions as the barrier immune system are the most critical.
  • Notable examples include stomach acidity which kills most microbes, antimicrobial peptides on mucosal epithelial tissue, and even the flow of urine that flushes pathogens out of the urethra.

• Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation: Airway Resistance

  • Airway resistance refers to resistance in the respiratory tract to airflow.
  • Airway resistance can change over time, especially during an asthma attack when the airways constricts causing an increase in airway resistance.
  • Below is the equation for calculating airway resistance (R).
  • Therefore the resistance to air in the bronchi is greater than the resistance to air in the trachea.
  • Laminar flow (a) has orderly layers and low resistance.

• Introduction to Blood Flow, Pressure, and Resistance

  • Resistance to flow must be overcome to push blood through the circulatory system.
  • If resistance increases, either pressure must increase to maintain flow, or flow rate must reduce to maintain pressure.
  • Numerous factors can alter resistance, but the three most important are vessel length, vessel radius, and blood viscosity.
  • With increasing length, increasing viscosity, and decreasing radius, resistance is increased.
  • The resistance offered by peripheral circulation is known as systemic vascular resistance (SVR), while the resistance offered by the vasculature of the lungs is known as pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR).

• The Resistance Reaction

  • Resistance is the second stage of the general adaptation syndrome, where the body has an increased capacity to respond to the stressor.
  • The organism's resistance to the stressor drops temporarily below the normal range and some level of shock (e.g., circulatory shock) may be experienced.
  • Resistance is the second stage and the increased secretion of glucocorticoids plays a major role by intensifying the systemic response.
  • Resistance reaction is the second stage of the general adaptation syndrome and is characterized by a heightened resistance to a stressor.
  • Explain how the endocrine system reacts to stress in the resistance stage

• Muscular Arteries

  • Distributing arteries are medium-sized arteries that draw blood from an elastic artery and branch into resistance vessels.
  • Muscular or distributing arteries are medium-sized arteries that draw blood from an elastic artery and branch into resistance vessels, including small arteries and arterioles.

• Sinusitis

  • Treatment includes performing surgical drainage and administration of antimicrobial therapy.

• Nose and Paranasal Sinuses

  • This may be a component of the barrier defenses of the innate immune system because of antimicrobial proteins found in the mucosa.

• Velocity of Blood Flow

  • At its simplest, imagine a perfect, rigid tube with no resistance and with a homogeneous liquid flowing through in a perpendicular manner.
  • Resistance is the force that must be overcome by pressure in order for flow to occur, and is a factor of vessel length, diameter, surface composition, and the viscosity of the liquid flowing through.
  • As resistance increases the difference in pressure which influences velocity decreases, which in turn reduces flow.
  • However, pathological changes in blood vessels that result in narrowing or an increase in surface resistance can lead to a reduction in pressure, velocity, and thus flow, which can in turn lead to tissue damage.
  • Increases in viscosity such as reduced water content lead to increases in resistance and thus reduction in flow.