reducing agent

Examples of reducing agent in the following topics:

• Overview of Reducing Agents

  • The following table summarizes the influence each of the reducing systems discussed above has on the different classes of carboxylic acid derivatives.
  • Note that Lithium Aluminum Hydride (LiAlH4) is the strongest reducing agent listed, and it reduces all the substrates.
  • They are reduced by all the reagents, but only a few of these provide synthetically useful transformations.

• Phosphorus Compounds as Reducing Agents

• Electrons and Energy

  • RH (Reducing agent) + NAD+ (Oxidizing agent) → NADH (Reduced) + R (Oxidized)
  • A compound that reduces another is called a reducing agent.
  • In the above equation, RH is a reducing agent and NAD+ is reduced to NADH.
  • In the above equation, NAD+ is an oxidizing agent and RH is oxidized to R.
  • Its reduced form is FADH2.

• Binary Hydrides

  • Hydrides are compounds in which one or more hydrogen anions have nucleophilic, reducing, or basic properties.
  • While hydrides traditionally react as Lewis bases or reducing agents by donating electrons, some metal hydrides behave as both acids and hydrogen-atom donors.
  • Hydrides are commonly used as reducing agents, donating electrons in chemical reactions.
  • Hydrides such as calcium hydride are used as dessicants, or drying agents, to remove trace water from organic solvents.
  • Ionic hydrides are often used as heterogeneous bases and reducing reagents in organic synthesis.

• Free Energy and Cell Potential

  • This is related to how easily the oxidized species gives up electrons and how badly the reduced species wants to gain them.
  • Since the standard electrode potentials are given in their ability to be reduced, the bigger the standard reduction potentials, the easier they are to be reduced; in other words, they are simply better oxidizing agents.
  • F2 reduces easily and is therefore a good oxidizing agent.
  • In contrast, Li(s) would rather undergo oxidation, so it is a good reducing agent.
  • In the example of Zn2+, whose standard reduction potential is -0.76 V, it can be oxidized by any other electrode whose standard reduction potential is greater than -0.76 V and can be reduced by any electrode with standard reduction potential less than -0.76 V.

• Antisense Agents

  • Antisense agents are short oligonucleotides that bind to target messenger RNA and inhibit protein synthesis.
  • When this agent binds to the pathogen DNA or messenger RNA, the biosynthesis of target proteins is disrupted.
  • Therefore, there are at least two ways in which antisense agents act to effectively reduce the amount of pathogenic protein being synthesized - RNase H based degradation of RNA and prevention of ribosomal assembly and translation.
  • Antisense agents also exhibit efficacy in broader clinical applications such as cancer therapy.
  • Discuss the mechanism of antisense agents and the advantages and disadvantages of antisense therapy

• Suppression and Alteration of Microbiota by Antimicrobials

  • This is especially a problem when broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents are used, as antimicrobial treatments while helping to clear up pathogenic microbes from the body will often kill symbiotic bacteria.
  • Antimicrobial agents which can kill beneficial gut flora can reduce the numbers of individual microbes or reduce the species of beneficial bacteria.
  • Yeast infections can be caused by antibiotics, as well as using aggressive topical cleaning agents such as detergents which again kill off beneficial lactobacilli allowing C. albicans to overgrow.
  • Fortunately there are antimicrobial agents that specifically target pathogenic bacterial species, which opposed to broad-spectrum treatments can reduce harmful effects on beneficial microbes.
  • Sometimes the use of broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents is unavoidable; in these situations, consuming foods such as yogurt which contains beneficial bacteria can replenish the body's symbiotic microbes.

• Damage to Proteins and Nucleic Acids

  • A bacteriostatic agent is a biological or chemical agent that stops bacteria from reproducing by targeting DNA replication and proteins.
  • A bacteriostatic agent or bacteriostat, abbreviated Bstatic, is a biological or chemical agent that stops bacteria from reproducing, while not necessarily harming them.
  • High concentrations of some bacteriostatic agents are also bactericidal, whereas low concentrations of some bacteriocidal agents are bacteriostatic.
  • It is commonly used to treat acne today, and, more recently, rosacea, and is historically important in reducing the number of deaths from cholera.

• Principle-Agent Problem

  • The principle-agent problem (agency dilemma) exists when conflicts of interest arise between a principal and an agent in a business setting.
  • In economics, the principal-agent problem (also known as an agency dilemma) exists when conflicts of interest arise between a principal and an agent in a business setting .
  • This connection sets the standard for judging the performance of the agent.
  • The diagram shows the basic idea of the principle agent problem.
  • P is the principle and A is the agent.

• Aspirin and Thrombolytic Agents

  • Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid, is a salicylate drug often used as an analgesic to relieve minor aches and pains, an antipyretic to reduce fever, and an anti-inflammatory medication.
  • Low doses of aspirin may also be helpful after a heart attack to reduce the risk of subsequent heart attack, or death of cardiac tissue.
  • Many people take aspirin daily to reduce their risk of heart attack.
  • Thus, in secondary prevention trials aspirin reduced overall mortality by about ten percent.