hydration shell

Examples of hydration shell in the following topics:

• Solutions and Heats of Hydration

  • When ions dissolve in water, the stabilizing interactions that result release energy called the "heat of hydration."
  • The number of water molecules contained in the primary hydration shell, which completely encompasses the ion, varies with the radius and charge of the ion.
  • M^+ (g) + X^-(g) \to M^+ (aq) + X^-(aq)$ [heat of hydration]
  • The average time an ion spends in a hydration shell is about two to four nanoseconds, which is about two orders of magnitude longer than the lifetime of an individual H2O–H2O hydrogen bond.
  • A hot solution results when the heat of hydration is much greater than the lattice energy of the solute.

• Water’s Solvent Properties

  • This is referred to as a sphere of hydration, or a hydration shell, and serves to keep the particles separated or dispersed in the water.
  • Consider table salt (NaCl, or sodium chloride): when NaCl crystals are added to water, the molecules of NaCl dissociate into Na+ and Cl– ions, and spheres of hydration form around the ions.
  • When table salt (NaCl) is mixed in water, spheres of hydration form around the ions.

• Alteration of Membrane Permeability

  • Cl− in particular is excluded from the channel because its hydration shell is thermodynamically stronger than the shells of most monovalent cations.

• Characteristics of Amniotes

  • The distinguishing characteristic of amniotes, a shelled egg with an amniotic membrane, allowed them to venture onto land.
  • Although the shells of various amniotic species vary significantly, they all allow retention of water.
  • The shells of bird eggs are composed of calcium carbonate and are hard, but fragile.
  • The shells of reptile eggs are leathery and require a moist environment.
  • The amnion protects the embryo from mechanical shock and supports hydration.

• Naming Hydrates

  • The name of a hydrate follows a set pattern: the name of the ionic compound followed by a numerical prefix and the suffix -hydrate.
  • The name of a hydrate follows a set pattern: the name of the ionic compound followed by a numerical prefix and the suffix "-hydrate."
  • A hydrate that has lost water is referred to as an anhydride.
  • In organic chemistry, hydrates tend to be rarer.
  • Molecules have been labeled as hydrates for historical reasons.

• Viral Gastroenteritis

  • Reoviruses are non-enveloped and have an icosahedral capsid composed of an outer and inner protein shell.
  • After binding to the receptor the outer shell is partially digested to allow cell entry.
  • The inner shell particle then enters the cytoplasm by a yet unknown process to start replication.
  • The foundation of management of gastroenteritis, viral-caused or otherwise, is adequate hydration.

• Addition Reactions Involving Other Cyclic Onium Intermediates

  • The resulting cationic intermediate may be stabilized by the non-bonding valence shell electrons on the sulfur in exactly the same way the halogens exerted their influence.
  • Since the hydroboration procedure is most commonly used to hydrate alkenes in an anti-Markovnikov fashion, we also need to know the stereoselectivity of the second oxidation reaction, which substitutes a hydroxyl group for the boron atom.

• Crystal Field Theory

  • CFT successfully accounts for some magnetic properties, colors, and hydration energies of transition metal complexes, but it does not attempt to describe bonding.

• Cylindrical Shells

  • In the shell method, a function is rotated around an axis and modeled by an infinite number of cylindrical shells, all infinitely thin.
  • Shell integration (also called the shell method) is a means of calculating the volume of a solid of revolution when integrating perpendicular to the axis of revolution .
  • In the integrand, the factor $x$ represents the radius of the cylindrical shell under consideration, while  is equal to the height of the shell.
  • Calculating volume using the shell method.
  • Use shell integration to create a cylindrical shell and calculate the volume of a "solid of revolution" perpendicular to the axis of revolution.

• Electron Shells and the Bohr Model

  • These orbits form electron shells or energy levels, which are a way of visualizing the number of electrons in the various shells.
  • Electrons fill orbit shells in a consistent order.
  • The innermost shell has a maximum of two electrons, but the next two electron shells can each have a maximum of eight electrons.
  • This is known as the octet rule which states that, with the exception of the innermost shell, atoms are more stable energetically when they have eight electrons in their valence shell, the outermost electron shell.
  • As shown, helium has a complete outer electron shell, with two electrons filling its first and only shell.