concentration camps

Examples of concentration camps in the following topics:

• Genocide

  • These are slave laborers in the Buchenwald concentration camp, a German Nazi concentration camp established on the Ettersberg (Etter Mountain) near Weimar, Germany, in July 1937.
  • It was one of the first and the largest of the concentration camps on German soil.
  • Many prisoners had died from malnutrition when U.S. troops of the 80th Division entered the camp.
  • The photograph was taken five days after the camp's liberation.

• The Holocaust

  • Holocaust scholars draw a distinction between extermination camps and concentration camps.
  • The last two groups were to be sent to concentration camps for "re-education," with the aim of eventual absorption into the Volksgemeinschaft ("people's community"), though some of the moral opponents were to be sterilized, as they were regarded as "genetically inferior."
  • A distinctive feature of Nazi genocide was also the extensive use of human subjects in "medical" experiments carried in both extermination and concentration camps.
  • Local commanders continued to kill Jews, and to shuttle them from camp to camp by forced "death marches" until the last weeks of the war.
  • Some extermination and concentration camps were liberated by Allied powers in their final march through Europe on the way to defeat Nazi Germany.

• Casualties of World War II

  • In addition to Nazi concentration camps, the Soviet gulags (labour camps) led to the death of citizens of occupied countries such as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, as well as German prisoners of war (POWs) and even Soviet citizens who had been or were thought to be supporters of the Nazis.
  • Japanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates.
  • SS female camp guards remove prisoners' bodies from lorries and carry them to a mass grave, inside the German Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, 1945

• Resocialization and Total Institutions

  • Institutions organized to protect the community against perceived intentional dangers, with the welfare of the sequestered people not the immediate issue, including concentration camps, prisoner of war camps, penitentiaries and jails
  • Institutions purportedly established to pursue some task, including colonial compounds, work camps, boarding schools, and ships

• The Holocaust

  • Nazis established a network of concentration camps starting in 1933 and ghettos following the outbreak of World War II in 1939.
  • The use of extermination camps (also called "death camps") equipped with gas chambers for the systematic mass extermination of peoples was an unprecedented feature of the Holocaust.
  • Rudolf Höss, the longest-serving commandant of Auschwitz concentration camp, said:
  • Those who were fit for work were sent into the Camp.
  • Hungarian Jews being selected by Nazis to be sent to the gas chamber at Auschwitz concentration camp.

• Internment of Japanese Americans

  • Japanese-American internment was the relocation and internment by the United States Government in 1942 of about 110,000 Japanese Americans and Japanese living along the Pacific coast of the United States to camps called "War Relocation Camps."
  • The Department of Justice (DOJ) operated camps officially called Internment Camps, which were used to detain those suspected of actual crimes or "enemy sympathies."
  • Scholars have urged dropping such euphemisms and refer to them as concentration camps and the people as incarcerated.
  • The spartan facilities of the camps met international laws, but still left much to be desired.
  • Concentrated largely in rural areas of Central California, there were dozens of reports of gun shots, fires, and explosions aimed at Japanese American homes, businesses and places of worship, in addition to non-violent crimes like vandalism and the defacing of Japanese graves.

• Adrenergic Neurons and Receptors

  • Agonist binding thus causes a rise in the intracellular concentration of the second messenger cAMP.
  • Downstream effectors of cAMP include the cAMP-dependent protein, kinase (PKA), which mediates some of the intracellular events following hormone binding.
  • α2, on the other hand, couples to Gi, which causes a decrease of cAMP activity, that results in smooth muscle contraction.
  • One important note is the differential effects of increased cAMP in smooth muscle compared to cardiac muscle.
  • Increased cAMP will promote relaxation in smooth muscle, while promoting increased contractility and pulse rate in cardiac muscle.

• Methods of Intracellular Signaling

  • Another second messenger utilized in many different cell types is cyclic AMP (cAMP).
  • The main role of cAMP in cells is to bind to and activate an enzyme called cAMP-dependent kinase (A-kinase).
  • Differences give rise to the variation of the responses to cAMP in different cells.
  • Present in small concentrations in the plasma membrane, inositol phospholipids are lipids that can also be converted into second messengers.
  • This diagram shows the mechanism for the formation of cyclic AMP (cAMP). cAMP serves as a second messenger to activate or inactivate proteins within the cell.

• The Sectional Crisis Deepens

  • Increasing sectional polarization pushed most Americans into two distinct political camps on the eve of the 1860 presidential election.
  • Sectionalism increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North (which phased slavery out of existence) industrialized, urbanized, and built prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor together with subsistence farming for the poor white families.
  • The debates between slave-state and free-state interests raged in Congress; many people in the North and the South began to polarize along similar fault lines, and various disparate political organizations began to coalesce into distinct camps.
  • By the election of 1860, these political camps were firmly aligned with Northern and Southern interests, with Southern states whipping up public support for state conventions to vote on secession if Abraham Lincoln and the Republicans won the presidency.
  • The antebellum era of short-term compromise and evasion between the political camps was heading toward an end.

• Plasma Membrane Hormone Receptors

  • One very important second messenger is cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP).
  • Adenylyl cyclase catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cAMP. cAMP, in turn, activates a group of proteins called protein kinases, which transfer a phosphate group from ATP to a substrate molecule in a process called phosphorylation.
  • Each molecule of adenylyl cyclase then triggers the formation of many molecules of cAMP.
  • Hormone binding to receptor activates a G protein, which in turn activates adenylyl cyclase, converting ATP to cAMP. cAMP is a second messenger that mediates a cell-specific response.
  • An enzyme called phosphodiesterase breaks down cAMP, terminating the signal.