12.1 Organic Chemistry

Scientists of the 18th and early 19th centuries studied compounds obtained from plants and animals and labeled them organic because they were isolated from “organized” (living) systems. Compounds isolated from nonliving systems, such as rocks and ores, the atmosphere, and the oceans, were labeled inorganic. For many years, scientists thought organic compounds could be made by only living organisms because they possessed a vital force found only in living systems. The vital force theory began to decline in 1828, when the German chemist Friedrich Wöhler synthesized urea from inorganic starting materials. He reacted silver cyanate (AgOCN) and ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl), expecting to get ammonium cyanate (NH₄OCN). What he expected is described by the following equation.

AgOCN + NH₄Cl → AgCl + NH₄OCN

Instead, he found the product to be urea (NH₂CONH₂), a well-known organic material readily isolated from urine. This result led to a series of experiments in which a wide variety of organic compounds were made from inorganic starting materials. The vital force theory gradually went away as chemists learned that they could make many organic compounds in the laboratory.

Today organic chemistryThe study of the chemistry of carbon compounds. is the study of the chemistry of the carbon compounds, and inorganic chemistryThe study of the chemistry of all other elements. is the study of the chemistry of all other elements. It may seem strange that we divide chemistry into two branches—one that considers compounds of only one element and one that covers the 100-plus remaining elements. However, this division seems more reasonable when we consider that of tens of millions of compounds that have been characterized, the overwhelming majority are carbon compounds.

Carbon is unique among the other elements in that its atoms can form stable covalent bonds with each other and with atoms of other elements in a multitude of variations. The resulting molecules can contain from one to millions of carbon atoms. In Chapter 12 "Organic Chemistry: Alkanes and Halogenated Hydrocarbons" through Chapter 15 "Organic Acids and Bases and Some of Their Derivatives", we survey organic chemistry by dividing its compounds into families based on functional groups. (For general information about organic functional groups, see Chapter 4 "Covalent Bonding and Simple Molecular Compounds", Section 4.6 "Introduction to Organic Chemistry".) We begin with the simplest members of a family and then move on to molecules that are organic in the original sense—that is, they are made by and found in living organisms. These complex molecules (all containing carbon) determine the forms and functions of living systems and are the subject of biochemistry, a topic presented in Chapter 16 "Carbohydrates" through Chapter 20 "Energy Metabolism".

Organic compounds, like inorganic compounds, obey all the natural laws. Often there is no clear distinction in the chemical or physical properties among organic and inorganic molecules. Nevertheless, it is useful to compare typical members of each class, as in Table 12.1 "General Contrasting Properties and Examples of Organic and Inorganic Compounds". (Keep in mind, however, that there are exceptions to every category in this table.) To further illustrate typical differences among organic and inorganic compounds, Table 12.1 "General Contrasting Properties and Examples of Organic and Inorganic Compounds" also lists properties of the inorganic compound sodium chloride (common table salt, NaCl) and the organic compound hexane (C₆H₁₄), a solvent that is used to extract soybean oil from soybeans (among other uses). Many compounds can be classified as organic or inorganic by the presence or absence of certain typical properties, as illustrated in Table 12.1 "General Contrasting Properties and Examples of Organic and Inorganic Compounds".