successive approximation

Examples of successive approximation in the following topics:

• Shaping

  • Shaping is a method of operant conditioning by which successive approximations of a target behavior are reinforced.
  • Instead of rewarding only the target, or desired, behavior, the process of shaping involves the reinforcement of successive approximations of the target behavior.
  • Then, the trainer rewards a behavior that is one step closer, or one successive approximation nearer, to the target behavior.
  • For example, Skinner would reward the rat for taking a step toward the lever, for standing on its hind legs, and for touching the lever—all of which were successive approximations toward the target behavior of pressing the lever.
  • Continue to reinforce closer and closer approximations of the target behavior.

• Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning: Skinner

  • Instead of rewarding only the target, or desired, behavior, the process of shaping involves the reinforcement of successive approximations of the target behavior.
  • Behavioral approximations are behaviors that, over time, grow increasingly closer to the actual desired response.

• Psychosurgery

  • Psychosurgery is a drastic step typically only taken in the absence of any other successful treatment (and sometimes not even then), because it is a major challenge to remove harmful tissue without impacting the brain tissue necessary to retain full neural function.
  • It was hypothesized that making two lesions would produce better results, but the rate of effectiveness is still approximately the same as the subcaudate tractotomy procedure alone.

• Pharmacotherapy (Medication)

  • They have been found to work for as many as 70% of individuals with schizophrenia; however, approximately 30% of users develop serious side effects from using antipsychotics.
  • Antidepressants are effective in approximately 80% of individuals.
  • Then with the 1950s came the establishment of chlorpromazine for psychoses, lithium carbonate for mania, and then in rapid succession, the development of tricyclic antidepressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, and benzodiazepines, among other antipsychotics and antidepressants.

• The Five-Factor Model

  • It is the most widely accepted structure among trait theorists and in personality psychology today, and the most accurate approximation of the basic trait dimensions (Funder, 2001).
  • Numerous studies have found a positive correlation between conscientiousness and academic success.

• Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

  • Approximately 30%–50% of children diagnosed with ADHD continue to experience symptoms as adolescents and adults.
  • Many people with a diagnosis of ADHD are very successful; however, the disorder can make academic and work performance more challenging.

• Electroconvulsive Therapy

  • ECT is a safe procedure with a mortality rate calculated to approximately 0.2 per 100,000 treatments.
  • When ECT was followed by treatment with antidepressants, about 50% of people relapsed by 12 months following successful initial treatment with ECT, with about 37% relapsing within the first 6 months.

• Stages of Sleep

  • A sleeper first enters stage three approximately 30 to 45 minutes into sleeping.
  • However, for each successive sleep cycle, the proportion of the cycle spent in REM sleep increases, up to an hour long in later cycles.

• Controversies in Intelligence and Standardized Testing

  • Again, even if intelligence scores correlate with job success, this does not mean that people with high intelligence will always be successful at work.
  • Critics of standardized tests also point to problems associated with using the SAT and ACT exams to predict college success.
  • According to recent research, the SAT and ACT have been found to be poor predictors of college success.
  • Standardized tests don't measure factors like motivational issues or study skills, which are also important for success in school.
  • Predicting college success is most reliable when a combination of factors is considered, rather than a single standardized test score.

• Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

  • Erikson's psychosocial stages of development focus on the resolution of different crises to become a successful, complete person.
  • This mastery helps children grow into successful, contributing members of society.
  • Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality.
  • Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships.
  • However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted.