parallel processing

Examples of parallel processing in the following topics:

• Serial and Parallel Processing

  • Serial memory processing compares a memory to a target stimulus, while parallel processing carries out multiple operations simultaneously.
  • Serial memory processing is the act of attending to and processing one item at a time, while parallel memory processing is the act of attending to and processing all items simultaneously.
  • Parallel processing is the ability to carry out multiple operations or tasks simultaneously.
  • The term is used in the contexts of human cognition, particularly in the ability of the brain to simultaneously process incoming stimuli, and in parallel computing by machines.
  • In parallel processing, the brain simultaneously processes incoming stimuli of differing quality.

• Functions of the Cerebellum in Integrating Movements

  • The cerebellum differs from most other parts of the brain in that the signal processing is almost entirely feedforward, that is, signals move unidirectionally through the system from input to output, with very little recurrent internal transmission.
  • Signals enter the circuit, are processed by each stage in sequential order, and then leave.
  • Thus, the cerebellar network receives a modest number of inputs, processes them very extensively through its rigorously structured internal network, and sends out the results via a very limited number of output cells.
  • Different modules share input from mossy fibers and parallel fibers, but in other respects they appear to function independently.
  • In a single cerebellar module, input from as many as a billion parallel fibers converges onto a group of less than 50 deep nuclear cells, and the influence of each parallel fiber on those nuclear cells is adjustable.

• Somatic Sensory Pathways to the Cerebellum

  • A sensory system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information.
  • It is part of the somatosensory system and runs in parallel with the dorsal spinocerebellar tract.
  • It is part of the somatosensory system and runs in parallel with the ventral spinocerebellar tract.
  • Proprioceptive information is taken to the spinal cord via central processes of dorsal root ganglia (where first order neurons reside).
  • These central processes travel through the dorsal horn where they synapse with second order neurons of Clarke's nucleus.

• Modulation of Movement by the Cerebellum

  • However, the cerebellum can receive information from the cerebral cortex and processes this information to to send motor impulses to the skeletal muscle.
  • It receives input from thousands of parallel fibers, each individually very weak.
  • Feedforward processing: Refers to the unidirectional movement of signals through the system from input to output, with very little recurrent internal transmission.
  • Signals enter the circuit, are processed by each stage in sequential order, and then leave.
  • The influence of each parallel fiber on nuclear cells is adjustable.

• Functions of the Cerebellum

  • Cerebellar function was believed to be motor-specific, but newer findings suggest the cerebellum is also involved in higher brain processing.
  • Feedforward processing: The cerebellum differs from other parts of the brain (especially the cerebral cortex) in that the signal processing is almost entirely feedforward, that is, signals move unidirectionally through the system from input to output with very little recurrent internal transmission.
  • Signals enter the circuit, are processed by each stage in sequential order, and then leave.
  • This neural divergence is followed by parallel fiber outputs that converge onto 15 million Purkinje cells.
  • In a single cerebellar module, input from as many as a billion parallel fibers converge onto a group of less than 50 deep nuclear cells, and the influence of each parallel fiber on those nuclear cells is adjustable.

• How Skeletal Muscles Are Named

  • The anatomical arrangement of skeletal muscle fascicles can be described as parallel, convergent, pennate, or sphincter.
  • Parallel muscles are characterized by fascicles that run parallel to one another, and contraction of these muscle groups acts as an extension of the contraction of a single muscle fiber.
  • Parallel muscles can be divided into fusiform and non-fusiform types based on their shape.
  • The biceps brachii is an example of a  fusiform parallel muscle, and is responsible for flexing the forearm.
  • Fascicles pull on the tendon at an angle, thus not moving as far at the parallel muscles during a contraction.

• Ulna and Radius (The Forearm)

  • The forearm contains two bones—the radius and the ulna—that extend in parallel from the elbow, where they articulate with the humerus to the wrist, where they articulate with the carpals.
  • The cornoid process, together with the olecranon, forms the trochlear notch where it articulates with the trochlea of the humerus.
  • Immediately distal to the coronoid process is the tuberosity of ulna, to which the brachialis muscle attaches.
  • The styloid process of the ulna extends distally and is the site of attachment for ligaments found in the wrist.

• Hemispheric Lateralization

  • The processing of visual and auditory stimuli, spatial manipulation, facial perception, and artistic ability are represented bilaterally, but may show a right-hemisphere superiority.
  • Exact calculation and fact retrieval are associated with left parietal regions, perhaps due to their ties to linguistic processing.
  • This suggests that the evolutionary advantage of lateralization comes from the capacity to perform separate parallel tasks in each hemisphere of the brain.
  • The evolutionary advantage of lateralization comes from the capacity to perform separate parallel tasks in each hemisphere of the brain.
  • In a 2011 study published in the journal of Brain Behavioral Research, it was shown that lateralization of a few specific functions as opposed to overall brain lateralization is correlated with parallel tasks efficiency.

• Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage

  • The onset and timing of this gradient damage to the muscle parallels the degree of muscle soreness experienced by the runners.
  • These substances then stimulate the free nerve endings in the muscle; a process that appears accentuated by eccentric exercise, in which large forces are distributed over a relatively small cross-sectional area of the muscle.

• Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

  • Osteoid is hardened with inorganic salts, such as calcium and phosphate, by the chemicals released from the osteoblasts through a process known as mineralization.
  • The regular parallel alignment of collagen into sheets, or, lamellae, causes lamellar bone to be mechanically strong.
  • After a fracture, woven bone forms initially and is gradually replaced by lamellar bone during a process known as bony substitution.