Radioactive Decay Series: Introduction

Radioactive decay series, or decay chains, describe the radioactive decay of different discrete radioactive decay products as a chained series of transformations. Most radioactive elements do not decay directly to a stable state; rather, they undergo a series of decays until eventually a stable isotope is reached.

Radioactive Decay Series Diagram

This diagram provides examples of four decay series: thorium (in blue), radium (in red), actinium (in green), and neptunium (in purple).

Decay stages are referred to by their relationship to previous or subsequent stages. A parent isotope is one that undergoes decay to form a daughter isotope. The daughter isotope may be stable, or it may itself decay to form a daughter isotope of its own. The daughter of a daughter isotope is sometimes called a granddaughter isotope.

The time it takes for a single parent atom to decay to an atom of its daughter isotope can vary widely, not only for different parent-daughter chains, but also for identical pairings of parent and daughter isotopes. While the decay of a single atom occurs spontaneously, the decay of an initial population of identical atoms over time, $t$, follows a decaying exponential distribution, $e^{-t}$, where $\lambda$ is called the decay constant. Because of this exponential nature, one of the properties of an isotope is its half-life, the time by which half of an initial number of identical parent radioisotopes have decayed to their daughters. Half-lives have been determined in laboratories for thousands of radioisotopes (radionuclides). These half-lives can range from nearly nonexistent spans of time to as much as $10^{19}$ years or more.

The intermediate stages often emit more radioactivity than the original radioisotope. When equilibrium is achieved, a granddaughter isotope is present in proportion to its half-life. But, since its activity is inversely proportional to its half-life, any nuclide in the decay chain finally contributes as much as the head of the chain. For example, natural uranium is not significantly radioactive, but pitchblende, a uranium ore, is 13 times more radioactive because of the radium and other daughter isotopes it contains. Not only are unstable radium isotopes significant radioactivity emitters, but as the next stage in the decay chain they also generate radon, a heavy, inert, naturally occurring radioactive gas. Rock containing thorium and/or uranium (such as some granites) emits radon gas, which can accumulate in enclosed places such as basements or underground mines. Radon exposure is considered the leading cause of lung cancer in non-smokers.