orbital

Examples of orbital in the following topics:

• sp2 Hybridization

  • In order to explain the bonding, the 2s orbital and two of the 2p orbitals (called sp2 hybrids) hybridize; one empty p-orbital remains.
  • In this case, carbon will sp2 hybridize; in sp2 hybridization, the 2s orbital mixes with only two of the three available 2p orbitals, forming a total of three sp hybrid orbitals with one p-orbital remaining.
  • This illustration shows how an s-orbital mixes with two p orbitals to form a set of three sp2 hybrid orbitals.
  • These particular orbitals are called sp2 hybrids, meaning that this set of orbitals derives from one s- orbital and two p-orbitals of the free atom.
  • In sp^2 hybridization, the 2s orbital mixes with only two of the three available 2p orbitals, forming a total of three sp^2 orbitals with one p-orbital remaining.

• Orbits

  • The orbital cavity is formed from seven bones.
  • The frontal bone forms the superior border of the orbital rim and also the superior wall (roof) of the orbital surface.
  • The zygomatic bone forms the lateral (and half of the basal) border of the orbital rim and also the lateral wall of the orbital surface, this is the thickest region of the orbit as it is most exposed to external trauma.
  • Completing the basal and medial border of the orbital rim is the maxillary bone which also forms the inferior wall (floor) of the orbital surface.
  • The lacrimal and ethmoid bones contribute to the medial wall of the orbit and also the medial wall of the orbital canal.

• Satellites

  • Low Earth orbit is any orbit below 2000 km, and Medium Earth orbit is any orbit higher than that but still below the altitude for geosynchronous orbit at 35,786 km.
  • High Earth orbit is any orbit higher than the altitude for geosynchronous orbit.
  • High Earth orbit (HEO): Geocentric orbits above the altitude of geosynchronous orbit 35,786 km (22,236 mi).
  • Elliptic orbit: An orbit with an eccentricity greater than 0 and less than 1 whose orbit traces the path of an ellipse.
  • Geostationary transfer orbit: An elliptic orbit where the perigee is at the altitude of a Low Earth orbit (LEO) and the apogee at the altitude of a geostationary orbit.

• The Phase of Orbitals

  • When constructing molecular orbitals, the phase of the two orbitals coming together creates bonding and anti-bonding orbitals.
  • One orbital, based on in-phase mixing of the orbitals, will be lower in energy and termed bonding.
  • Another orbital, based on out-of-phase mixing of the orbitals, will be higher in energy and termed anti-bonding.
  • This molecular orbital is called the bonding orbital and its energy is lower than that of the original atomic orbitals.
  • P-orbital overlap is less than head-on overlap between two s orbitals in a σ-bond due to orbital orientation.

• Atomic and Molecular Orbitals

  • In general, this mixing of n atomic orbitals always generates n molecular orbitals.
  • The notation used for molecular orbitals parallels that used for atomic orbitals.
  • In the case of bonds between second period elements, p-orbitals or hybrid atomic orbitals having p-orbital character are used to form molecular orbitals.
  • For example, the sigma molecular orbital that serves to bond two fluorine atoms together is generated by the overlap of p-orbitals (part A below), and two sp3 hybrid orbitals of carbon may combine to give a similar sigma orbital.
  • A mixing of the 2s-orbital with two of the 2p orbitals gives three sp2 hybrid orbitals, leaving one of the p-orbitals unused.

• sp Hybridization

  • In sp hybridization, the s orbital overlaps with only one p orbital.
  • When atomic orbitals hybridize, the valence electrons occupy the newly created orbitals.
  • The p orbital is one orbital that can hold up to two electrons.
  • Hybridization of an s orbital and a p orbital of the same atom produces two sp hybrid orbitals.
  • The left orbital energy-level diagram shows both electrons of Be in the 2s orbital.

• sp3 Hybridization

  • sp3 hybrid orbitals form when a single s and three p orbitals hybridize.
  • The single 2s orbital is spherical, different from the dumbbell-shaped 2p orbitals.
  • In hybridization, carbon's 2s and three 2p orbitals combine into four identical orbitals, now called sp3 hybrids.
  • The simplest of these is ethane (C2H6), in which an sp3 orbital on each of the two carbon atoms joins (overlaps) to form a carbon-carbon bond; then, the remaining carbon sp3 orbital overlaps with six hydrogen 1s orbitals to form the ethane molecule.
  • In the water molecule, the oxygen atom can form four sp3 orbitals.

• Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)

  • An LCAO approximation is a quantum superposition of atomic orbitals, used to calculate molecular orbitals in quantum chemistry.
  • It is possible to combine the known orbitals of constituent atoms in a molecule to describe its electron orbitals.
  • A linear combination of atomic orbitals, or LCAO, is a quantum superposition of atomic orbitals and a technique for calculating molecular orbitals in quantum chemistry.
  • Essentially, n atomic orbitals combine to form n molecular orbitals.
  • Predict which orbitals can mix to form a molecular orbital based on orbital symmetry, and how many molecular orbitals will be produced from the interaction of one or more atomic orbitals

• Electron Orbitals

  • The closest orbital to the nucleus, called the 1s orbital, can hold up to two electrons.
  • The 1s orbital is always filled before any other orbital.
  • After the 1s orbital is filled, the second electron shell is filled, first filling its 2s orbital and then its three p orbitals.
  • Two electrons fill the 1s orbital, and the third electron then fills the 2s orbital.
  • Each sphere is a single orbital. p subshells are made up of three dumbbell-shaped orbitals.

• Hybridization in Molecules Containing Double and Triple Bonds

  • In methane (CH4) for example, a set of sp3 orbitals forms by mixing one s- and three p-orbitals on the carbon atom.
  • In sp2 hybridization, the 2s orbital mixes with only two of the three available 2p orbitals, forming a total of 3 sp2 orbitals with one p-orbital remaining.
  • sp hybridization explains the chemical bonding in compounds with triple bonds, such as alkynes; in this model, the 2s orbital mixes with only one of the three p-orbitals, resulting in two sp orbitals and two remaining p-orbitals.
  • In this model, the 2s orbital mixes with only one of the three p-orbitals, resulting in two sp-orbitals and two remaining unchanged p-orbitals.
  • The sp hybridized orbitals are used to overlap with the 1s hydrogen orbitals and the other carbon atom.