hybridization

Examples of hybridization in the following topics:

• sp2 Hybridization

  • In order to explain the bonding, the 2s orbital and two of the 2p orbitals (called sp2 hybrids) hybridize; one empty p-orbital remains.
  • sp2 Hybridization in Ethene and the Formation of a Double Bond
  • In this case, carbon will sp2 hybridize; in sp2 hybridization, the 2s orbital mixes with only two of the three available 2p orbitals, forming a total of three sp hybrid orbitals with one p-orbital remaining.
  • The carbon atoms are sp2 hybridized.
  • Recognize the role of sp2 hybridized atoms in sigma and pi bonding.

• Hybrid Zones

  • An area where two closely-related species continue to interact and reproduce, forming hybrids, is called a hybrid zone.
  • Over time, the hybrid zone may change depending on the fitness strength and the reproductive barriers of the hybrids .
  • Over time, via a process called hybrid speciation, the hybrids themselves can become a separate species.
  • For a hybrid zone to be stable, the offspring produced by the hybrids have to be less fit than members of the parent species.
  • Discuss how the fitness of a hybrid will lead to changes in the hybrid zone over time

• sp3 Hybridization

  • sp3 hybrid orbitals form when a single s and three p orbitals hybridize.
  • In hybridization, carbon's 2s and three 2p orbitals combine into four identical orbitals, now called sp3 hybrids.
  • For example, in the ammonia molecule, the fourth of the sp3 hybrid orbitals on the nitrogen contains the two remaining outer-shell electrons, which form a non-bonding lone pair.
  • Ethane can form by replacing one of the hydrogen atoms in CH4 with another sp3 hybridized carbon fragment.
  • Explain the process of hybridization as it applies to the formation of sp3 hybridized atoms.

• Hybridization in Molecules Containing Double and Triple Bonds

  • In chemistry, hybridization is the concept of mixing atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals suitable for describing bonding properties.
  • The hybrids are named for the atomic orbitals involved in the hybridization.
  • For this molecule, carbon will sp2 hybridize.
  • In this case, sp hybridization leads to two double bonds.
  • Describe the role of hybridization in the formation of double and triple bonds.

• Five-Part Rondo

  • Hybrid themes generally combine the features of sentences and periods.
  • See the atoms on the sentence, the period, and Classical theme functions for more information on the elements included in hybrid themes.
  • Hybrid 2 similarly begins with an antecedent phrase, but follows with a four-bar-long cadential progression.
  • Hybrid 3 is almost identical to Hybrid 1, with the exception that the first phrase does not end with a cadence.
  • Hybrid 4 is almost identical to a period, with the exception that the first phrase does not end with a cadence.

• sp Hybridization

  • In sp hybridization, the s orbital overlaps with only one p orbital.
  • When atomic orbitals hybridize, the valence electrons occupy the newly created orbitals.
  • The hybridization process involves mixing of the valence s orbital with one of the valence p orbitals to yield two equivalent sp hybrid orbitals that are oriented in a linear geometry.
  • Hybridization of an s orbital and a p orbital of the same atom produces two sp hybrid orbitals.
  • Each hybrid orbital is oriented primarily in just one direction.

• Two-Hybrid Analysis

  • The two-hybrid method detects the interaction of two proteins by their ability to reconstitute the activity of a split transcription factor.
  • The most widely employed tools are the yeast two-hybrid system .
  • The yeast two-hybrid screening system is an effective and quick tool for the in vivo study of protein–protein interaction both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
  • One limitation of classic yeast two-hybrid screens is that they are limited to soluble proteins.
  • Overview of two-hybrid assay, checking for interactions between two proteins, called here Bait and Prey.

• The FISH Technique

  • FISH is a hybridization technology which allows the labeling of target RNAs with a fluorescent probe.
  • FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization) is a cytogenetic technique developed by biomedical researchers in the early 1980s.
  • The probe must be large enough to hybridize specifically with its target but not so large as to impede the hybridization process.
  • They are anti-sense to the target mRNA or DNA of interest, thus they hybridize to targets.
  • A similar hybridization technique is called a zoo blot.

• Atomic and Molecular Orbitals

  • These hybrid orbitals have a specific orientation, and the four are naturally oriented in a tetrahedral fashion.
  • Click on the following link for a model of this hybridization (http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/VirtTxtJml/Jmol-11.2/hyborbtl2.htm).
  • A mixing of the 2s-orbital with two of the 2p orbitals gives three sp2 hybrid orbitals, leaving one of the p-orbitals unused.
  • Two sp2 hybridized carbon atoms are then joined together by sigma and pi-bonds (a double bond), as shown in part B.
  • Finally, in the case of carbon atoms with only two bonding partners only two hybrid orbitals are needed for the sigma bonds, and these sp hybrid orbitals are directed 180º from each other.

• Double and Triple Covalent Bonds

  • Double and triple bonds can be explained by orbital hybridization, or the 'mixing' of atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals.
  • Hybridization describes the bonding situation from a specific atom's point of view.
  • A combination of s and p orbitals results in the formation of hybrid orbitals.
  • From the perspective of the carbon atoms, each has three sp2 hybrid orbitals and one unhybridized p orbital.
  • A schematic of the resulting orientation in space of sp3 hybrid orbitals.