operant conditioning

Examples of operant conditioning in the following topics:

• Conditioned Behavior

  • In classical conditioning, a behavior is paired with an unrelated stimulus; in operant conditioning, behaviors are modified by consequences.
  • Two types of conditioning techniques include classical and operant conditioning.
  • In operant conditioning, the conditioned behavior is gradually modified by its consequences as the animal responds to the stimulus.
  • This type of learning is an example of operant conditioning.
  • The training of dolphins by rewarding them with food is an example of positive reinforcement operant conditioning.

• Cognitive Learning and Sociobiology

  • Cognitive learning relies on cognitive processes such as reasoning and abstract thinking; it is much more efficient than conditioning.
  • Classical and operant conditioning are inefficient ways for humans and other intelligent animals to learn.
  • In the reverse scenario, conditioning cannot help someone learn about cognition.
  • This type of learning is much more powerful and versatile than conditioning.
  • It may not be immediately obvious that this type of learning is different from conditioning.

• Regulation of the Cell Cycle at Internal Checkpoints

  • The cell cycle is controlled by three internal checkpoints that evaluate the condition of the genetic information.
  • To prevent a compromised cell from continuing to divide, internal control mechanisms operate at three main cell cycle checkpoints.
  • The G1 checkpoint determines whether all conditions are favorable for cell division to proceed.
  • The cell can halt the cycle and attempt to remedy the problematic condition, or the cell can advance into G0 (inactive) phase and await further signals when conditions improve.
  • The G2 checkpoint bars entry into the mitotic phase if certain conditions are not met.

• The lac Operon: An Inducer Operon

  • CAP binds to the operator sequence upstream of the promoter that initiates transcription of the lac operon.
  • However, for the lac operon to be activated, two conditions must be met.
  • If glucose is absent, then CAP can bind to the operator sequence to activate transcription.
  • If lactose is absent, then the repressor binds to the operator to prevent transcription.
  • Only when both conditions are satisfied is the lac operon transcribed, such as when glucose is absent and lactose is present .

• Denaturation and Protein Folding

  • If the denaturing conditions reversed by cooling in the refrigerator, the protein reforms into its original gel structure.
  • Pepsin, the enzyme that breaks down protein in the stomach, only operates at a very low pH.
  • Chaperone proteins (or chaperonins) are helper proteins that provide favorable conditions for protein folding to take place.

• Anatomy of the Eye

  • In conditions of high ambient light, the iris contracts, reducing the size of the pupil.
  • In conditions of low light, the iris relaxes and the pupil enlarges .
  • The lens is operated by muscles that stretch it flat or allow it to thicken, changing the focal length of light coming through to focus it sharply on the retina.
  • However, when looking at a star in the night sky or other object in dim light, the object can be better viewed by the peripheral vision because it is the rods at the edges of the retina, rather than the cones at the center, that operate better in low light.

• Charles Darwin and Natural Selection

  • Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace independently developed the theories of evolution and its main operating principle: natural selection.
  • As conditions improved in 1987 and larger seeds became more available, the trend toward smaller average bill size ceased.
  • Natural selection, Darwin argued, was an inevitable outcome of three principles that operated in nature.

• The Galapagos Finches and Natural Selection

  • Natural selection, Darwin argued, was an inevitable outcome of three principles that operated in nature.
  • Peter and Rosemary Grant and their colleagues have studied Galápagos finch populations every year since 1976 and have provided important demonstrations of the operation of natural selection.
  • Subsequent studies by the Grants have demonstrated selection on and evolution of bill size in this species in response to other changing conditions on the island.

• Climate and Weather

  • Climate refers to long-term, predictable atmospheric conditions, while weather refers to atmospheric conditions during a short period of time.
  • Climate refers to the long-term, predictable atmospheric conditions of a specific area .
  • In contrast, weather refers to the conditions of the atmosphere during a short period of time.
  • Climate refers to long-term, predictable atmospheric conditions of a specific area.
  • This map illustrates the various climate conditions around the world.

• Homeostasis: Thermoregulation

  • Since ectotherms rely on environmental heat sources, they can operate at economical metabolic rates.
  • Heat is usually generated from the animal's normal metabolism, but under conditions of excessive cold or low activity, an endotherm generate additional heat by shivering.