reinforcement

Examples of reinforcement in the following topics:

• Reinforcement Principles

• Reinforcement and Punishment

  • Both reinforcement and punishment can be positive or negative.
  • A primary reinforcer, also called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that has innate reinforcing qualities.
  • These kinds of reinforcers are not learned.
  • Some primary reinforcers, such as drugs and alcohol, merely mimic the effects of other reinforcers.
  • A secondary reinforcer, also called a conditioned reinforcer, has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked or paired with a primary reinforcer.

• Schedules of Reinforcement

  • Reinforcement schedules determine how and when a behavior will be followed by a reinforcer.
  • Fixed refers to when the number of responses between reinforcements, or the amount of time between reinforcements, is set and unchanging.
  • Interval means the schedule is based on the time between reinforcements, and ratio means the schedule is based on the number of responses between reinforcements.
  • Extinction of a reinforced behavior occurs at some point after reinforcement stops, and the speed at which this happens depends on the reinforcement schedule.
  • The four reinforcement schedules yield different response patterns.

• Shaping

  • Shaping is a method of operant conditioning by which successive approximations of a target behavior are reinforced.
  • Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the target behavior.
  • You will no longer reinforce the previously reinforced response.
  • Next, begin to reinforce the response that even more closely resembles the target behavior.
  • Continue to reinforce closer and closer approximations of the target behavior.

• Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning

  • Operant conditioning, a theory of behaviorism, states that behaviors are learned by the reinforcement of consequences over time.
  • He also believed that this learned association could end, or become extinct, if the reinforcement or punishment was removed.
  • His experiments used shaping, reinforcement, and reinforcement schedules in order to prove the importance of the relationship that animals form between behaviors and results.
  • This is accomplished through reinforcement, or reward, of the segments of the target behavior, and can be tested using a large variety of actions and rewards.
  • The experiments were taken a step further to include different schedules of reinforcement that become more complicated as the trials continued.

• Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning: Skinner

  • He also believed that this learned association could end, or become extinct, if the reinforcement or punishment was removed.
  • Skinner's most famous research studies were simple reinforcement experiments conducted on lab rats and domestic pigeons, which demonstrated the most basic principles of operant conditioning.
  • In these boxes he would present his subjects with positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, or aversive stimuli in various timing intervals (or "schedules") that were designed to produce or inhibit specific target behaviors.
  • The process by which one could arrange the contingencies of reinforcement responsible for producing a certain behavior then came to be called operant conditioning.
  • Instead of rewarding only the target, or desired, behavior, the process of shaping involves the reinforcement of successive approximations of the target behavior.

• Behavioral Psychology

  • The strengthening of a response occurs through reinforcement.
  • Skinner described two types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement, which is the introduction of a positive consequence such as food, pleasurable activities, or attention from others, and negative reinforcement, which is the removal of a negative consequence such as pain or a loud noise.
  • Skinner saw human behavior as shaped by trial and error through reinforcement and punishment, without any reference to inner conflicts or perceptions.
  • Some behavior therapies employ Skinner's theories of operant conditioning: by not reinforcing certain behaviors, these behaviors can be extinguished.
  • This later gave rise to applied behavior analysis (ABA), in which operant conditioning techniques are used to reinforce positive behaviors and punish unwanted behaviors.

• Incentive Theory of Motivation and Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

  • If extrinsic incentives are used to stimulate behaviors that an individual already finds motivating (even without external reinforcement), intrinsic motivation for that behavior may decrease over time.
  • Other studies suggest that intrinsic motivation may not be so vulnerable to the effects of extrinsic reinforcements, and in fact, reinforcements such as verbal praise might actually increase intrinsic motivation (Arnold, 1976; Cameron & Pierce, 1994).
  • Several factors may influence this: for one, physical reinforcements (such as money) have been shown to have more negative effects on intrinsic motivation than do verbal reinforcements (such as praise).
  • For example, praise might have less effect on behavior for people with high self-esteem because they would not have the same need for approval that would make external praise reinforcing.

• Defining Learning

  • Operant conditioning is the learning process by which behaviors are reinforced or punished, thus strengthening or extinguishing a response.
  • He differentiated between positive and negative reinforcement, and also explored the concept of extinction.
  • Observational learning occurs through observing the behaviors of others and imitating those behaviors—even if there is no reinforcement at the time.

• Latent Learning

  • Latent learning occurs without any obvious conditioning or reinforcement of a behavior, illustrating a cognitive component to learning.
  • It occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned.
  • Tolman, arose largely because the phenomenon seemed to conflict with the widely held view that reinforcement was necessary for learning to occur.