encoding

Examples of encoding in the following topics:

• Introduction to Memory Encoding

  • "Recall" refers to retrieving previously encoded information.
  • Visual encoding is the process of encoding images and visual sensory information.
  • The creation of mental pictures is one way people use visual encoding.
  • The amygdala plays a large role in the visual encoding of memories.
  • Not all information is encoded equally well.

• Other Steps

  • Visual encoding uses information from the visual senses to create memories.
  • Acoustic encoding uses sound information to create new memories.
  • Semantic encoding is the use of sensory input that has certain meaning or context to encode and create memories.
  • Some strategies used in semantic encoding include chunking and mnemonics.
  • This is used during acoustic encoding.

• The Fallibility of Memory

  • Memories can be encoded poorly or fade with time; the storage and recovery process is not flawless.
  • This can cause a divergence between what is internalized as a memory and what actually happened in reality; it can also cause events to encode incorrectly, or not at all.
  • However, this process can be impacted by a number of factors, and how well information is encoded affects how well it is able to be recalled later.
  • The way memories are encoded is personal; it depends on what information an individual considers to be relevant and useful, and how it relates to the individual's vision of reality.
  • Memories that are encoded poorly or shallowly may not be recoverable at all.

• Transience and Encoding Failure

  • Both transience and encoding failure can limit our ability to store and, later, recall memories.
  • This often causes a divergence in what is internalized as a memory and what actually happened in reality; it can also cause events to encode incorrectly, or not at all.
  • Research indicates that sleep is of paramount importance for the brain to encode information into accessible memories.
  • There is a limited capacity of working memory, so little can be remembered at a later time unless the information is encoded to long-term memory.
  • To form a memory in the brain, information must first be encoded and stored before it can be recalled for later use.

• Introduction to the Process and Types of Memory

  • Memory is the ability to take in information, encode it, store it, and retrieve it at a later time.
  • In psychology, memory is broken into three stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
  • In this first stage we must change the information so that we may put the memory into the encoding process.
  • Storage: the creation of a permanent record of the encoded information.
  • The three stages of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

• Introduction to Memory Storage

  • Memory storage is achieved through the process of encoding, through either short- or long-term memory.
  • During the process of memory encoding, information is filtered and modified for storage in short-term memory.
  • As the retention interval between encoding and retrieval of the memory lengthens, the accuracy of the memory decreases.
  • The multi-trace distributed memory model suggests that the memories being encoded are converted to vectors (lists of values), with each value or "feature" in the vector representing a different attribute of the item to be encoded.
  • A single memory is distributed to multiple attributes, so that each attribute represents one aspect of the memory being encoded.

• The Role of Attention in Memory

  • In order to encode information into memory, we must first pay attention, a process known as attentional capture.
  • In order for information to be encoded into memory, we must first pay attention to it.
  • This stimulus is then encoded into working memory, at which point the memory is manipulated either to associate it with another familiar concept or with another stimulus within the current situation.
  • If the information is deemed important enough to store indefinitely, the experience will be encoded into long-term memory.
  • There are several theories to explain how certain information is selected to be encoded while other information is discarded.

• Considerations for Eyewitness Testimony

  • There are many types of biases and attentional limitations that make it difficult to encode memories during a stressful event.
  • Studies investigating this effect have shown that a person is better able to recognize faces that match their own race but are less reliable at identifying other races, thus inhibiting encoding. 
  • Perception may affect the immediate encoding of these unreliable notions due to prejudices, which can influence the speed of processing and classification of racially ambiguous targets.
  • The accuracy of eyewitness memory degrades swiftly after initial encoding.
  • The red line shows that eyewitness memory declines rapidly following initial encoding and flattens out after around 2 days at a dramatically reduced level of accuracy.

• Neural Correlates of Memory Consolidation

  • Like encoding, consolidation affects how well a memory will be remembered after it is stored: if it is encoded and consolidated well, the memory will be easily retrieved in full detail, but if encoding or consolidation is neglected, the memory will not be retrieved or may not be accurate.
  • Even if the amygdala is damaged, memories can still be encoded.

• Memory Retrieval: Recognition and Recall

  • Only data that is processed through STM and encoded into LTM can later be retrieved.
  • Past memories can inhibit the encoding of new memories.
  • Retroactive interference occurs when newly learned information interferes with the encoding or recall of previously learned information.
  • Sometimes a person is not able to retrieve a memory that they have previously encoded.