the Patent of Toleration

Examples of the Patent of Toleration in the following topics:

• Joseph II and Domestic Reform

  • In 1781, Joseph issued the Serfdom Patent, which aimed to abolish aspects of the traditional serfdom system of the Habsburg lands through the establishment of basic civil liberties for the serfs.
  • In contrast, the peasants of the German-speaking provinces were actually aided by the Patent.
  • The Patent granted the serfs some legal rights in the Habsburg monarchy, but it did not affect the financial dues and the physical corvée (unpaid labor) that the serfs legally owed to their landlords, which it practice meant that it did not abolish serfdom but rather expanded selected rights of serfs.
  • Joseph's  enlightened despotism included also the Patent of Toleration, enacted in 1781, and the Edict of Tolerance in 1782. 
  • The Patent granted religious freedom to the Lutherans, Calvinists, and Serbian Orthodox, but it wasn't until the 1782 Edict of Tolerance that Joseph II extended religious freedom to the Jewish population.

• Patents

  • The value of a patent that a company would record on its books depends on how it acquired the patent.
  • If the business purchased the patent from the original holder, the value of the patent equals the acquisition cost.
  • The value of the patent may be increased if a patent holding company defends its rights to the invention in a lawsuit.
  • If the company uses an outside law firm, all fees the business pays to the firm to defend the patent will be included as part of the patent's book value.
  • The process of amortization requires decreasing the value of the asset annually by an amount equal to the value of the asset divided by the number of years of the patent's useful life.

• Patents

  • Software patents are the lightning rod issue of the moment in free software, because they pose the only real threat against which the free software community cannot defend itself.
  • If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent infringement or for any other reason (not limited to patent issues),conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not excuse you from the conditions of this License.
  • It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any patents or other property right claims or to contest validity of any such claims; this section has the sole purpose of protecting the integrity of the free software distribution system, which is implemented by public license practices.
  • Grant of Patent License.
  • Only changes in the substance or interpretation of international patent law will do that.

• Clonal Selection and Tolerance

  • Clonal selection and tolerance select for survival of lymphocytes that will protect the host from foreign antigens.
  • The concept of central tolerance was proposed in 1959 as part of a general theory of immunity and tolerance.
  • It was hypothesized that it is the age of the lymphocyte that defines whether an antigen that is encountered will induce tolerance, with immature lymphocytes being tolerance sensitive.
  • clonal selection of the B and T lymphocytes:1.
  • Describe the importance of central and peripheral tolerance and distinguish between positive and negative clonal selection

• Legal Barriers

  • Intellectual property rights, including copyright and patents, are an important example of legal barriers that give rise to monopolies.
  • A patent is a limited property right the government gives inventors in exchange for their agreement to share the details of their invention with the public.
  • During the term of the patent, the patent holder has the right to exclude others from making, using, or selling the patented invention.
  • This allows the company to recoup the cost of developing this particular drug.
  • After the patent expires, any pharmaceutical company can manufacture and sell a generic version of the drug, bringing down the price of the original drug to compete with new versions.

• Amortization of Intangible Assets

  • Each year, Company X will recognize an expense of $1,000 in addition to decreasing the value of the patent reported on the balance sheet by $1,000.
  • See the figure below for an example of a U.S. patent .
  • The patent lawyer charges $10,000 and is successful in defending Company X's patent.
  • The $10,000 spent to defend the patent is capitalized to the value of the patent on Company X's balance sheet and then amortized over the remaining 12 years of the patent's legal life.
  • As a result of the useful life of their patent being reduced from 17 years to just 5 years, the remaining unamortized value of $12,000 is expensed and the patent is written down to a value of $0.

• Biofilms, Persisters, and Antibiotic Tolerance

  • The property of biofilms constitute a penetration barrier for most antibiotics therefore preventing the drug from reaching the microbes.
  • Bacterial populations that produce persister cells that neither grow nor die in the presence of microbicidal antibiotics are largely responsible for high levels of biofilm tolerance to antimicrobials.
  • Persisters are not mutants, but rather phenotypic variants of the wild-type that upon inoculation produce a culture with similar levels of tolerance.
  • Biofilms and persisters are the cause of multidrug tolerance.
  • Explain the role of biofilms and persisters in multidrug tolerance, distinguishing this from multidrug resistance

• Limited-Life Impairment

  • A software company has a patent valued at $10 million with a useful life of 40 years.
  • Due to market conditions, the company believes the patent's value has decreased and tests it for impairment at the end of the year.
  • Year end calculations reveal the patent is valued at $8 million and an impairment loss of $2 million is recorded as a debit to Loss on Patent Impairment on the income statement and a credit to Accumulated Impairment Losses on the balance sheet (disclosed as a contra asset account to the intangible asset).
  • As a result of the impairment, the amortization expense on the patent should be adjusted to reflect the new value.
  • Examples of intangible assets with a limited-life include copyrights and patents.

• Investing in Research and Development

  • The government can do so by creating a good structure of intellectual property protection, called, broadly, patent law.
  • This atom will first discuss how the government can establish a patent system, and then ways in which it can directly affect the level of research and development in an economy.
  • Patents are temporary monopolies granted to inventors by the government, in exchange for public disclosure of how the invention works.
  • They are one of the basic forms of intellectual property.
  • Essentially, a patent gives the holder the right to exclude others from, among other things, using, selling, and making the claimed invention.

• Entry Barriers

  • The term can refer to hindrances a firm faces in trying to enter a market or industry—such as government regulation and patents, or a large, established firm taking advantage of economies of scale—or those an individual faces in trying to gain entrance to a profession—such as education or licensing requirements.
  • The most important barriers are economies of scale, patents, access to expensive and complex technology, and strategic actions by incumbent firms designed to discourage or destroy new entrants.
  • Pharmaceutical manufacturers are one type of company that generally rely on patents, which makes competition irrelevant for a period of time after development: competitors can't legally begin manufacturing the product until the patent expires.
  • Consequently, the industry is dominated by two firms.
  • Explain the necessity of entry barriers for the existence of an oligopoly