secondary response

Examples of secondary response in the following topics:

• Immunological Memory

  • During the adaptive immune response to a pathogen that has not been encountered before, known as the primary immune response, plasma cells secreting antibodies and differentiated T cells increase, then plateau over time.
  • This is known as the secondary immune response.
  • When exposed to the corresponding pathogen to which an individual was vaccinated, the reaction is similar to a secondary exposure.
  • Vaccines, often delivered by injection into the arm, result in a secondary immune response if the vaccinated individual is later exposed to that pathogen.
  • In the primary response to infection, antibodies are secreted first from plasma cells.

• Lymphoid Tissue

  • Lymphoid tissue consists of many different organs playing a role in the production and maturation of lymphocytes in the immune response.
  • The lymphoid tissue may be primary or secondary depending upon the stage of lymphocyte development and maturation it is involved in.
  • Secondary or peripheral lymphoid organs maintain mature naive lymphocytes until an adaptive immune response is initiated.
  • Mature lymphocytes will then recirculate between the blood and the peripheral lymphoid organs until they encounter their specific antigen, where they will perform their immune response functions.
  • Secondary lymphoid tissue provides the environment for the antigens to interact with the lymphocytes.

• Pineal Gland and Gonads

  • The pineal gland is responsible for melatonin production, while the gonads secrete hormones relating to sexual characteristic development.
  • The testes produce androgens, which allow for the development of secondary sex characteristics and the production of sperm cells.
  • The ovaries produce hormones, such as estrogen and progesterone, which cause secondary sex characteristics and prepare the body for childbirth.
  • Estrogen is also responsible for secondary sex characteristics such as female body hair and fat distribution.
  • Estrogen and progesterone are responsible for the development of the breast and for the uterine cycle.

• Stages of Socialization Throughout the Life Span

  • The socialization process can be separated into two main stages: primary socialization and secondary socialization.
  • Socialization is a life process, but is generally divided into two parts: primary and secondary socialization.
  • While there are scholars who argue that only one or the other of these occurs, most social scientists tend to combine the two, arguing that the basic or core identity of the individual develops during primary socialization, with more specific changes occurring later—secondary socialization—in response to the acquisition of new group memberships and roles and differently structured social situations.
  • The need for later-life socialization may stem from the increasing complexity of society with its corresponding increase in varied roles and responsibilities.
  • Response: The child and adolescent may be more easily malleable than the adult.

• Teaching High School Classes

  • High school (or secondary education) teachers are responsible for teaching students a variety of core subjects and elective classes.
  • As subject content specialists, high school educators are responsible for helping to design curricula based on their subject expertise and state standards.
  • Students are expected to take these courses, for the most part, every year until they graduate from secondary education.
  • The class typically covers basic anatomy, nutrition, first aid, sexual education, and how to make responsible decisions regarding illegal drugs, tobacco, and alcohol.
  • Secondary school teachers are certified in one of two areas for secondary education: middle school or high school (and in some states, certification can be to teach grades 6-12).

• Raynaud's Phenomenon

  • Raynaud's phenomenon is a vasospastic disorder that causes discoloration of the fingers and toes in response to cold or stress.
  • Raynaud's phenomenon is an exaggeration of normal vasomotor responses to cold or emotional stress, caused by hyperactivation of the sympathetic nervous system.
  • Raynaud's syndrome, or secondary Raynaud's, occurs secondary to a wide variety of other conditions.
  • Drugs which may cause secondary Raynaud's include beta-blockers, chemotherapeutics, and anthrax vaccines.
  • A careful medical history will often reveal whether the condition is primary or secondary.

• Secondary Immunodeficiency Diseases

  • Most cases of immunodeficiency are acquired ("secondary") but some people are born with defects in their immune system, or primary immunodeficiency.
  • Distinction between primary versus secondary immunodeficiencies are based on, respectively, whether the cause originates in the immune system itself or is, in turn, due to insufficiency of a supporting component of it or an external decreasing factor of it.
  • Secondary immunodeficiencies, also known as acquired immunodeficiencies, can result from various immunosuppressive agents, for example, malnutrition, aging and particular medications (e.g., chemotherapy, disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs, immunosuppressive drugs after organ transplants, glucocorticoids).
  • HIV directly infects a small number of T helper cells and also impairs other immune system responses indirectly.

• Plant Defenses Against Pathogens

  • Plants defend against pathogens with barriers, secondary metabolites, and antimicrobial compounds.
  • Secondary metabolites are compounds that are not directly derived from photosynthesis and are not necessary for respiration or plant growth and development.
  • In addition to secondary metabolites, plants produce antimicrobial chemicals, antimicrobial proteins, and antimicrobial enzymes that are able to fight the pathogens.
  • A hypersensitive response, in which the plant experiences rapid cell death to fight off the infection, can be initiated by the plant; or it may use endophyte assistance: the roots release chemicals that attract other beneficial bacteria to fight the infection.

• Oogenesis

  • At the start of the menstrual cycle, some 12-20 primary follicles begin to develop under the influence of elevated levels of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) to form secondary follicles.
  • By around day 9 of the cycle, only one healthy secondary follicle remains, with the rest having been reabsorbed into the ovary.
  • The remaining follicle is called the dominant follicle and is responsible for producing large amounts of estrogen during the late follicular phase.
  • This causes the secondary follicle to develop into a tertiary follicle, which then leaves the ovary 24–36 hours later.
  • Immediately after meiosis I, the haploid secondary oocyte initiates meiosis II.

• Direct Gene Activation and the Second-Messenger System

  • Receptors can either directly influence gene expression and thus cell activity, or induce a secondary signalling cascade which will in turn influence cell activity.
  • Upon binding to a hormone the receptor and hormone translocate into the nucleus, and bind to specific sequences of DNA known as hormone response elements (HREs).
  • This signal is called the"secondary messenger".
  • The secondary messenger may then activate a "secondary effector" whose effects depend on the particular secondary messenger system.
  • Hormone binding to the NR triggers translocation to the nucleus, where the NR binds to a specific sequence of DNA known as a hormone response element (HRE).